Problem of the organization Essay

The purpose of this case is to understand the situation and the problem the organization has faced and gives possible solutions. The company is conducting work life balance concept to improve the employee satisfaction. Work life balance is intended to maintain the balance between work life and personal life. That is favorably effect to the organization as well as the employees. YTB Bank has faced high absenteeism situation. Even though absenteeism is the practice of regularly staying away from work, here I have identified the absenteeism as a main problem in the case. Therefor I have acknowledged what â€Å"Absenteeism Management† is?. There are many forms to prevent from the absenteeism. Here, I have identified a few of them. Since the organization has faced the problems regarding the absenteeism, I have identified the possible solutions to get rid from that. But there are benefits and difficulties that the manager and the employees can face. Here the implementation of work life balance has gone the wrong way. The reason is, employees do not understand the right implementation of the concept. Because of that they are requesting more flexibility from the manager. For the problem of the case, I have selected the best practices manager can implement. Apprentice employment is the best practice to solve the problem. But there are pros and cons of apprenticeship. There are financial, labor disputes and disadvantages of contract basis employment. I have given a possible solution to get rid of those problems. Finally, I recommend the possible solutions which can implement by the company. Problem Statement and symptoms The problem is four tellers out of seven, requesting leave at the same period. Mr. Gamini as regional manager is facing a problem with requests leave 4 of his tellers out of the 7 at the same time. A. One female teller (A) has already gone on maternity leave and after the cession of the said leave quota she has to report back by next week, yet since her newly born baby was a premature one still she is keeping the child in the Neonatal unit of the Colombo Hospital and meanwhile she has made written request from Mr. Gamini to extend her leave. B. The second teller’s mother has fallen in the house and fractured her leg and this teller being the one and only child of the family had to look after her (B) mother and request at least one month leave. C. The third teller (C) has two little ones in the year 1 and 3 respectively and needs to go early by 12pm to collect her little ones after school since there was no one to take care of them after school as they have come to Colombo recently and the other thing is her husband was a supervisor of a factory who is usually reaching home late. D. The fourth one (D), most competent teller to be a successor to Mr. Gamini after him with good knowledge, skills and experience as identified by Mr. Gamini is demanding to exempt herself for a few hours from daily work in order to continue her MBA. Symptoms Employees do not have proper knowledge about absenteeism. And there is no proper procedure to manage absenteeism. Polices of absenteeism is not carefully established. There is not any flexible work arrangement at the workplace. Literature Review Work-life balance is adjusting day-to-day activities to achieve a sense of balance between work life and personal life. There are benefits of work life balance management. Those have reduced stress levels, at work and at home, Greater focus and concentration, Higher levels of job satisfaction, The opportunity to participate more fully in family and social life, More time to pursue personal goals and hobbies and it is cause to Improve health of employees. Balancing the demands of a busy lifestyle is not an easy thing to do, but is best managed by regularly reviewing and assessing priorities. Setting goals around helps to identify what value highly. Managing time effectively is important. It can be done through reviewing job activities, give priorities and success factors and create a boundary between balancing work and personal time-leave work at work where possible. Build resilience and have a positive attitude is must. Avoid stress, mental exhaustion and burnout, fatigue affect to work productively. Maintain a healthy lifestyle, look after yourself, eat well, sleep well and set aside a little time to exercise or pursue an activity that can enjoy are other factors. Everyone experiences stress at some stage in their life. It is a way for us to know that something in our life is causing us concern and is affecting how we are thinking and feeling. Stress is not always bad. In small doses, it can help you perform under pressure and motivate you to do your best, but when you are constantly running in emergency mode, your mind and body pays the price. Managing stress is about making a plan to be able to cope effectively with daily pressures. The ultimate goal is to strike a balance between life, work, relationships, relaxation and fun. By doing this you are more able to deal with daily stress triggers and meet these challenges head on. Some strategies that can help to look after the mind and body, and in turn help to better control behaviors that result from too much stress. Consequences Consequences of absenteeism is not only harmful to an employee’s career, but the organization’s bottom line. Alternatively, absenteeism could be an indication of managerial issues. As an example : low employee morale and toxic work environment. Regardless of the reason, there is no doubt that the effects of absenteeism at work are resoundingly negative. Absenteeism hits the financial aspects of the organization. The absent member of staff has the potential to be paid for not producing any product. This can be 100% wages for a period of time which falls pro-rate as the absent period continues. Workers who regularly miss work or show up late risk being let go, forcing employers to go through the time and cost of hiring and training alternates. Complicating matters is the cost of having to pay an alternative employee to complete. Especially if short staffing forces managed to pay that individual over time. Administration of the cover absenteeism, rescheduling other employee, possible extra pay for others to take on the added amount of work. The added workload for peers is another problem. This adds greater pressure to others, requires a faster volume of the peers work to make time for the absent employee’s responsibilities to be covered. Frequent absenteeism can cause tension among co-workers. Employees who show up to work regularly and on time feel frustrated that a chronically late or absent employee is giving them an increased workload by forcing them to fill in. They may also pass judgment on the person’s perceived laziness. This anger can be aggravated further if no disciplinary action is taken. Great chance error due to added work load or adding new responsibilities to novice employees product quality deterioration can be brought about by work peers handling higher workloads. Dissatisfied customers may be resulted from that. Potential for other employees to become over-burdened and risk of them taking time off which of course adds to the circular effect. For those on long term absentees there is the possibility that their employment will be terminated. This requires recruitment to start, followed by interview, induction and training to bring the new employee up to that skill level of the terminated employee. Absenteeism impacts on the training and development of the employee base. If there is insufficient staff cover, employees may not be released for upskilling which adds to the poor performance of the overall organization. These are generic points, many employers will bring a wider range of issues specific to their environment If the employee is suffering personal problems, without a certain degree of flexibility and support from management, this can be even more detrimental than unexcused absences. If managers show zero tolerance for any absenteeism, workers will feel compelled to come in regularly, even if they definitely should not be there. Solutions To prevent difficulties like this, YTB Bank could have followed procedures. There are way outs which possible for the bank. A clear attendance policy. Flexible scheduling. Good documentation. Incentive programs should be tied to attendance. Tie promotions to attendants. The employee is in charge of their destiny. Look at the current scheduling guidelines. Peer pressure drives individual accountability. Let employees come up with their own schedules. Focus the real reasons for absence. Communicate regularly. Maintain contact with employees whilst they are absent from work. Take disciplinary action for unacceptable levels of absence. Include team games. Weight attendance on the scorecard. Share the statistics with departments/sections. Since the bank has introduced â€Å" Work-Life-Balancing-Dual-Responsibilities† process for the employees, managers can not restrict on the situation. Because of the he can adopt â€Å"Flexible Work Arrangements† to handle. Flexible work arrangements are alternate arrangements or schedules from the traditional working day and week. Employees may choose a different work schedule to meet personal or family needs. Alternatively, employers may initiate various schedules to meet their customer needs. There are flexible work arrangements can implement as the manager of YTB Banak. Since the teller is the employee of a bank who deals directly with most customers. There should be a proper schedule to satisfy the customers. The tellers should have experience in cash handling and should have pleasant character. To take a solution there are information to recognize. 1. How many tellers should be there at the same time – Assume at least five tellers should be there to handle customers. 2. What are the days the number of customers is high. 3. Whether there are additional employees in other sections (Internal Recruitment). 4. What is the financial position of the company at the moment. Solutions for teller A According to the case, teller A should get leave because of the unconscious situation she has faced. And she has made written request too. As a manager, Mr Gamini can not give her solution. Because of that she should be released from the problem. It is possible if manager can manage the problem with other three tellers. Pros and cons of the solution Teller A satisfied about the leave and she is happy. And she will expect to report to the work as soon as possible. Other employees also expect more flexibility from the manager. Solutions for teller B Asks teller B to take a person or relation to take care her mother. Or tell her to take her own solution to solve the problem without taking leave. Pros and cons of the solution Teller B is getting disappointed about the workplace and she will demotivate to work. Solutions for teller C The manager can introduce flexible working schedule for the tellers. Teller C expecting go early to take her children. And teller D expects few hours of a day. Therefor, it is possible if D can come to work after 12 o’clock while C can go home to take care of the children. Pros and cons of the solution C and D are happy with the solution. And the tellers can treat customers successfully. B is not happy with the solution and she is disappointing. It is harmful to organizations god will and the policies of the company. Because if the employees are going early and come in the evening is will get the bad image for the people. Ask teller C to find out a day care center near to the office for children and manager can give half hour interval to take children and placed them in a day care center. Or manager can arrange a place to keep children within the office. And she can ask her relative to come and stay with them and take care her children. Solutions for Teller D Since the teller D required few hours of the day, it is better if the manager can give her one day leave for a week. Hence, she works four days in a weak and get one day leave. Pros and Cons of the solution Even though she is happy with the solution other employees also expecting excuses. Alternative Solutions 1. Discuss with the tellers at the same time and ask them to get together, discuss and come up with a solution. And the same time inform them, at lest there should be five tellers in the office same time. Pros and Cons of the solution That is motivating employees to take decisions and understand the importance of their attendance their own. According to that manager can arrange the work schedule. Other employee’s attitudes can be changed. They will discourage of work and they will come up with solutions and the reasons for absentees. 2. Delegation the workload with other tellers in preferable schedule is another solution. It is possible arranged teller C and teller D on a roster basis for morning and evenings and B to at be home. Then to fill the blank of a teller, delegate the work with another five tellers. Pros and Cons of the solution Teller C, teller D and Teller B also happy with the solution. Other tellers are getting frustrated. Because their workload is high. Other tellers getting pressure to finish work. And there is a big possibility to make mistakes. 3. Hiring new employees is another solution for that. The situation has not been going for a long time. Because of that manager can not recruit permanent employee. Because of that, the manager can hire a person for a short time period. There are possible employment types which possible: Probationers Apprentice Fixed Term Contract Casual Employees Seasonal Employment Outsourcing Pros and Cost of the solution There is an additional cost for the company. There are hiring cost, interviewing cost, salary and other administrative cost. But it is a long term investment to the company. New spirit of the company. Recommended Solution Since the attitude and the behavior of the employees are very hard to change, it is not perfectly work above most solutions. Because of that I suggest hiring an employee is the best practice for the problem. From the above employment types, â€Å"Apprentice† is the greatest practical solution. Apprenticeship Apprentice cannot be considered as a workman or an employee. Thus there is no contract of service between an employer and employee. An Apprentice is merely acquiring the knowledge of he/she is interested in and an employer merely undertakes to train him. However some statutes including Industrial Dispute Act, EPF Act and Termination of Employment Act, have brought in an Apprentice within the definition of a workman. Taking on apprentices and trainees can provide real benefits for the company. A new apprentice or trainee can contribute significantly to the bottom line, with practical skills and knowledge acquired through their training. Taking on a new apprentice may also mean eligible for a range of government financial assistance. They can be full-time, part-time or school-based. But that is a cost for the company. Apprenticeships are available in many occupations in a broad range of industries. It can be increased labor disputes. By providing apprenticeship company can spread their good will and company can a word the certificate after the period. That is beneficial for future recruitments. Precautions Training Needs Since the newcomer is an unskilled labor there should be orientation program and training program. For that manager can allow senior employees to train new employees. Pros and Cons : That is wasting the time of experienced employee but at the same time it is an investment for the company. Administration Cost There is an administration cost which should outflow of the company. For the personal file and training documents are included to the administration cost. Pros and Cons : Even though it is a cost should pay from the company, it is increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of the operations. Moral Issues Morale and employee relations problems arise when the temps working alongside permanent employees for months, doing the same work and putting in the same hours, but not receiving the same benefits afforded their permanent employee’s co-workers. So it is better to explain the beneficial side of the apprentices and make the team work schedules. Pros and Cons : Again there is a time waste, but still the manager can make a friendly environment to each and every employee. Legal Concerns Recent court decisions have highlighted the fact that the organization must be careful how they hire apprentices. There must be no doubt about the workers’ status and about the lack of eligibility for the benefits of permanent employees. And treat temp workers with the same respect and care the permanent staff. Pros and Cons : The manager has to pay more attention to the legal remnants. And that will hit to the efficiency of the operations. But by paying more attention to those problems, managers can prevent from complex situations. Conclusion Organizations are conducting updated techniques, methods and the process maintain the efficient and effectiveness of operations. Human recourse management is one of the most important concepts of the company. Since the technological equipment and methods increase the productivity, there are arrangements to process and maintain employee satisfaction. HR Managers are responsible for making policies, designing and devising human resource strategies, contributing to the corporate plan of the organization, integrating human resource activities to the main purpose of the organization. Work life balance concept is one of the best practices of HRM. Implementation of the work life balance concept is beneficial for both parties. Efficient, innovative and motivated workforce is an asset to the company. And having a flexible work arrangement is facilitating employee satisfaction. They can easy to handle the day to day works. Before implement the process the management of the company should have proper knowledge about the concept and should identify the requirement of the employee. And they should conduct program to train their employees to implement the concept. Management should have rearranged the policies and schedules to maintain the control the concept. Then only company can increase the bottom line. Otherwise employee may expect more excuses and the flexibility and then they will miss their works. Within the work life balance environment it should be careful to maintain the absenteeism. It is better if management can get a solution from the organization without taking solutions from the outside. Job sharing, rescheduling, job expanding, promotions and internal recruitment are the internal solutions for the absenteeism. Otherwise every time organization has to pay the big cost to solve problems. Then employees will use to get solutions from out every time. They will not be serious in their work. In this case I have selected apprentice trainee for the vacancy. Because the change is a pain for employees. May be it is not effective the internal recruitment process. There is no contract with the employee and the employer in apprentice. Since the problem is for a short time period, that is the most possible solution than others. References Dayarathne N W K D K. (2007) Human Resources Management Theory and Practice, Colombo: S. Godage ; Brothers Snell. Bohlander. Vohra. (2007) Human Resources Management,Delhi:Cengage Learning http://wiki. answers. com/Q/How_can_high_absenteeism_of_employees_affect_an_organization 8/12/2013 http://www. qld. gov. au/health/mental-health/balance/lifestyle/index. html 8/14/2013 http://www. chamberscolombo. com/types_of_employment 10/15/2013 http://www. apprentice-forward. org. uk/YoungPeople/AdvantagesDisadvantages. asp 8/15/2013 http://www. businessknowhow. com/manage/hire-temp. htm 8/13/2013 http://www. hrmagazine. co. uk/hro/features/1078051/is-business-flexible 8/13/2013 http://www. hrsrilanka. com/resources/articles/81-terms-and-conditions-of-employment-in-sri-lanka 8/16/2013 https://www. whoi. edu/HR/page. do? pid=14332;ct=901;cid=2248/16/2013 http://www. inc. com/encyclopedia/flexible-work-arrangements. html8/16/2013 Appendix Case Study Mr. Gamini is the regional manager of the YTB Bank regional office Kirulapone and very recently he is facing problems with 4 of his tellers out of the 7 in the office. One female teller has already gone on maternity leave and after the cession of the said leave quota she has to report back by next week, yet since her newly born baby was a premature one still she is keeping the child in the Neonatal unit of the Colombo Hospital and meanwhile she has made written request from Mr. Gamini to extend her leave. The second teller’s mother has fallen in the house and fractured her leg and this teller being the one and only child of the family had to look after her mother and request at least one month leave. The third teller has two little ones in the year 1 and 3 respectively and needs to go early by 12pm to collect her little ones after school since there was no one to take care of them after school as they have come to Colombo recently and the other thing is her husband was a supervisor of a factory who is usually reaching home late. The fourth one, most competent teller to be a successor to Mr. Gamini after him with good knowledge, skills and experience as identified by Mr. Gamini is demanding to exempt herself for a few hours from daily work in order to continue her MBA. Early time none of these kind of request was entertained by the management of the band and from recent past the management is adopting a more flexible procedure and practice with regard to this type of work-life-balancing-dual-responsibilities of workers. Thus the new trend demands the regional manager Mr. Gamini to become a flexible

Analysis Of Array Waveguide Based Interleaver Engineering Essay

In the 20 first century, has monolithic demands in the usage and handiness of digital communicating systems transmittal ability, it has happen to an important issues to construct up thin channel spacing and larger channel figure multiplexers/ demultiplexers ( MUXs / DEMUXs ) for dense wavelength division multiplexing ( DWDM ) structures. In the contemporary, panoplied wave guide grate ( AWG ) , thin-film coating, and fibre Bragg grate are major engineerings for manufacturing MUXs / DEMUXs. [ 1 ] This study covers the basic operation and rules of ( AWG ) Array Wave Guide Based Interleaver. And the study covers the basic rule of array theory. And the public presentation analysis of AWG with utilizing opti system softwear. And besides in communicating webs, fibre optics webs are most rewarding communicating webs. Fibre optics is channelled the transmittal of visible radiation through thin glass. The purpose of this undertaking is to look into of the operation and map of the panoplied wave guide grates ( AWG ) . And the understand the public presentation of parametric quantities in the device, and so we investigate those public presentation of parametric quantities and seek to happen how those parametric quantities can impact of the device. Specifically, the base on balls set edges is more hard to command in optical constituents, such as panoplied waveguide grating ( AWGs ) , ensuing in interior XT public presentation. Interleavers assure that the originally next channels are no longer present at the concluding filter. In add-on the usage of interleavers is really effectual for the decrease of Rayleigh noise in bidirectional webs.AIMS AND OBJECTIVESUnderstand and familiarise the cardinal constructs and features of AWG Based Interleaver Develop and implement of AWG Based Interleaver2. ABOUT OPTICAL FIBER2.1 HistoryFibre optics is used circumstantial in the modern universe as modern engineering. The rule of guiding of visible radiation through the storytellers optics possible was explained by Jacques and Mr. Daniel in Paris in 1840. [ 8 ] In practically optical fibers are made by glass. And fiber is covered with a diaphanous shell to more correct of refractile index. [ 8 ] Development of fiber so focused on fiber packages for image transmittal. Image transmittal through tubing was found individually by telecasting laminitis John Logie Baird and the discoverer of wireless Clarence Hansel in 1920. [ 8 ]2.2 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONFibre optics used for communicating, as transmit signals. Fibers are used as a medium for telecommunication webs. Optical fiber is really utile for transmit signals of the far off distance communications. There are benefits of utilizing optical fibers for easy to convey signals, [ 2 ] High flexibleness High dependability Adequate to its strong velocity Distance of communicating web and Limit the practical velocity because of fading and the scattering jobs in the fiber. [ 2 ] To work out and cut down fading job can use of the Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier ( EDFA ) .To resolved scattering of optical fiber still coerce a via media between the transmittal distance and the bandwidth is doing it is mandatory to review high velocity of the signals at intervals utilizing opto electronic repeaters. [ 2 ] That public presentation usage for particularly long-distance communications. When compared with electrical wires little fading occurred in visible radiation propagates through the fiber. And the Repeaters usage for long distance to modulate to convey signal. Because they are losingss signal. One fiber can be transporting many channels with different moving ridge lengths. Optical fibres are largely make used of fiber ocular communications or can be transmitted signals through the fibres. Because of that signals can be travel with low losingss and the besides opposition to electro magnetic mediation. Here fiber ocular communicating signals allow transmittal more than higher bandwidths or informations rates and longer distance. And besides fibres are doing usage of lighting and the wrapped in clump of fibres and they can be applied to transport images. In the short distance communicating networking within a edifice or little country.single fibre can be transmit big figure of informations than the electrical wires. And besides fibre has electrical intervention. [ 8 ] Fibers can be prepared by crystalline plastic, glass or a mixture of the two stuffs. When long-distance telecommunications fibres make usage of merchandise is ever glass, ground of minor optical fading in fibres. together of the single-mode and the multi-mode fibres are doing usage of communicating links. Largely Multi-mode fibres are doing usage of the short infinites ( 550m ) . And the single-mode fibre devising used for long distance communicating links. [ 8 ] The best solution for that expeditiously improves the functional bandwidth in a construction non including electronic repeaters, and permits realisation of photonic webs by utilizing Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing ( DWDM ) . [ 2 ] Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing ( DWDM ) is best efficient procedure. Reason of a figure of channels can be carried. Each channel carried by dissimilar wavelengths, and they are transmitted throughout the individual optical fiber. Avail of the DWDM used more available bandwidth non including scattering consequence. And the channels using each channel, efficaciously separated from the other channels. And it can non be dependant of the velocities, protocols and the way of the communicating webs. [ 2 ] And besides DWDM helps to the all optical fiber webs architectures. Where on signals are routed by utilizing their wavelengths. As the consequence of that, this type of webs are likely more flexible and faster, and that can be low dearly-won to maintain up when the compared with other ways. [ 2 ]3. ARRAY WAVEGUID GREATINS3.1 INTRODUCTION ABOUT AWGArrayed Waveguide Grating ( AWG ) is multiplexers / demultiplexers are two-dimensional waveguide devices.Image and diffusing belongingss are basic foundation on an array wave guides. They imaging the field in an input and end product waveguide on to range wave guides in such a manner that the assorted wavelength signals are presented. [ 3 ] In recent old ages, Arrayed Waveguide Grating ( AWG ) was foremost discovered by Smit in 1988 and subsequently by Takahashi in 1990 and after that Dragone in 1991. They are known by under different names: Phased Arrays ( PHASARs ) , Arrayed Waveguide Gratings ( AWGs ) , and the Waveguide Grating Routers ( WGRs ) . [ 3 ] And wave guide grate router ( WGR ) has happen to more and more trendy as wavelength multiplexers / demultiplexers ( MUX / DEMUX ) for dense wavelength division multiplexing ( DWDM ) applications ( Vellekoop and Smit, in 1991 ) . The acronym AWG invented by Takahashi is the most usually used up name now a yearss. Fibre Bragg Gratings and Thin-Film Filters, AWGs are the chiefly important sort of filter type used in WDM webs. They are accepted bend out to be the chiefly important develop of Photonic Integrated Circuits ( PIC ) engineering. [ 4 ] Recent universe the chiefly important engineerings are used for AWGs. Indiumphosphide ( InP ) based semiconducting material engineering Silica-on-silicon engineering Equally good to that they investigate on Li niobate and silicon-based polymer engineerings have been shown up every bit good. Silica-on-silicon ( SoS ) AWGs have been presented to the sell in 1994 and at present clasp the major portion on the AWG market. [ 3 ] This average peers with fiber and so it relatively simple to partner off them to fibers. High fibre-coupling efficiency of ( losingss in usage of 0.1 dubnium ) and low extension loss ( less than 0.05 dB/cm ) with they joined. [ 3 ] The major trouble is they are relatively large because of their fiber compared waveguide belongingss. They are forbiding the usage of little curves. This is for the present being got better by utilizing upper index disparity and the doted-size convertors to maintenance fibre matching low losingss. [ 3 ]3.2 ABOUT AWGThis is a latest engineering make utilizations of an incorporate array of wave guides as a interleaving and grate. [ 5 ] The panoplied wave guide grate ( AWG ) is a two-dimensional wave guide device. [ 6 ] And the beam traveling from side to side a device grating shall make an intervention sample, meaning the beam is diffracted merely at clear angles. The spacial strength of giving out is a map of the grate, the wavelength and the angle of happening. In here different wavelengths will be diffracted in the different angles ( spatially separated ) . Arrayed waveguide grating ( AWG ) is bring forthing a bantam grate with lithographic engineering and with low losingss. [ 5 ] Functions in AWG: – Transmissive diffraction and grate in largest portion of fibre optics Harmonizing o the moving ridge length diffracting the beam at the angle The primary application of panoplied waveguide grates is WDM. By developing AWG, used for demultiplexing and WDM wavelength-division multiplexing ( WDM ) . Initially, developers are identified that AWGs could be mix with other two-dimensional wave guide setup. And the other assorted maps like, [ 6 ] Wavelength-selectable optical masers. Including dynamic addition Reconfigurable optical add/drop multiplexers Equalization Figure 3.2.1 In an panoplied wave guide grating [ 6 ] Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing ( DWDM ) is an effectual manner. Where the figure of channels, but different wavelengths are in each channel. Through a individual optical fiber allows transmitted signals, without raising the cause of scattering by utilizing to boot on manus bandwidth. [ 2 ] Each channel, while it is expeditiously divided from the others, could be free in protocol, way of communicating and velocity, all-optical web architecture are understood by aid of DWDM without want for electro-optical transition where transmit signals are routed harmonizing to wavelength. Therefore, this sort of web has below characterises when compared to other types, [ 2 ] Less dearly-won to keep More flexible Potentially faster Figure 3.2.2 An Add / Drop Multiplexer ( ADM ) . [ 2 ] Figure 3.2.3 An Optical Cross Connect ( OXC ) utilizing a infinite division exchange [ 2 ] In DWDM is done optical wavelength multiplxers / demultiplexers by Arrayed Waveguide Gratings ( AWG ) . Equally good as multiplexing and the demultiplexing maps are executing by DWDM. It can be joint with other setup to do put or out multiplexers, used to shriek one wavelengths on and off the web, and the brand usage of for the routing, and Cross Connects. These constituents can be inert, harmonizing to wavelength where the signal routing should be fixed, or activated. Where the optical switches are utilized to dynamically route the signals. [ 7 ] Both circuits are shown evident to the format of informations, can allow map wholly in the optical field and both directional transmit of information. These undertakings permit the creative activity of dissimilar evident optical web. Examples of the three chief sorts of these are explained in the approaching subdivisions. [ 2 ] It can set up several input fibers same clip. Input and end product port nexus policy were by experimentation verified and formulated. The device same clip removes the two chief mistakes observed in the before built up device ; decrease of every wave guide crossings between AWGs and taking off of the status to accurately match the features of the two AWGs. This suggestion will be helpful in cut down device cost. [ 9 ] This is because of the information that AWG based constituents that have been shown to be able of the precisely demultiplexing and a big figure of channels, with relatively small loss. Main characters of the N ( end product ) ten N ( input ) AWG MUX / DEMUXes are small loss of fiber to fibre, accurate and the narrow channel spacing, and the polarisation insensitiveness, so the large channel figure, high dependability and stableness, and being appropriate for the immense production ( Dragone in 1991 ) . [ 4 ] Because of the industry the AWG is established on graded photolithographic engineering, in the combination of the AWG gives so many benefits. Such as, Reduced packaging and fiction costs Dependability Large fiction Tolerances Concentration The most valuable benefits of the AWG besides include the controlled channel and exactly and the spacing, uniform the interpolation loss and simple and accurate wavelength in stabilisation. [ 4 ]3.3. ABOUT INTERLEAVER3.3.1 INTERLEAVER FUNCTIONL TYPESAll maps and filter types are common and periodic in frequence ( a ) Partition of channels end product to 1:4 or higher ( B ) Two different ports are used to divide even and uneven channels from Original interleaver. ( degree Celsius ) Asymmetric interleaver separates one channel. ( vitamin D ) Separates even and uneven sets of channels from banded interleaver, Figure 3.3.1.1 ( a ) Partition of channels end product to 1:4 or higher [ 10 ] Figure 3.3.1.2 ( B ) Two different ports are used to divide even and uneven channels from Original interleaver. [ 10 ] Figure 3.3.1.3 ( degree Celsius ) Asymmetric interleaver separates one channel. [ 10 ] Figure 3.3.1.4 ( vitamin D ) Separates even and uneven sets of channels from banded interleaver [ 10 ] In the optical communicating the effectual method for addition the transmittal capacity, was Dense wavelength division multiplexing ( DWDM ) . [ 10 ] The cyclic signals of the interleaver can be filter decreases the figure of channels. Fourier setup are necessary to the level base on balls set ( out put signal ) and high isolation rejection set. [ 10 ] These intreleavers contrasts in to merely impart bead and add filters. It can be making a individual narrow set of the filter more than a big rejection set. As a consequence of the interleaver needs for lesser Fourier setup, so the crisp border response higher order and same level top and narrow set filters can be understood with usage few subdivisions. [ 10 ] There are many assortments of the blocks of the interlever harmonizing to their maps. The initial design of combines ( or separates ) an uneven channels from even channels through the DWDM combiner. It is indicated by a 1:2 interleaver. In every channel there is cyclic separation and logical extension. Like as the 1:4 map Shown. The dissimilar discrepancy of the banded interleaver. Where the channel sets are separated and sporadically. [ 10 ] This is the really difficult to make and filtrate due to filters are roll off must be steeper in the relation to the filter clip. At last, in comparison with the old in three filters. The asymmetric filters can cyclically divide one channel. [ 10 ] Array Waveguide Gratings ( AWG ) s, and the DWDM devices such as thin movie filters ( TFFs ) and Fibre Bragg Gratings ( FBG ) s, are chiefly used for in systems with channel spacing to the no less than 100 GHz. [ 11 ] Can be spread out the transmittal ability, with lessening in the channel spacing. It is besides named interleaver. The input of the DWDM wavelengths can be separated by utilizing Interleaver. Each single channel is transmitted really high spot rate of traffic channels. Besides the chromatic scattering of the constituent is really low. [ 11 ]4. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF AWGThe panoplied wave guide grating base interleaver is includes of an array of narrow wave guides. Between a brace of Coupling zones or blending parts the signals are running closed each other. When cyclic wave guides running up to the 2nd commixture part, that input signals foremost enter the commixture part and where they are coupled. [ 6 ] After that the light transmitted to the 2nd commixture part. That part the moving ridge signal diffraction and in different angles of different wavelengths, it is similar to a diffraction grate. [ 6 ] The uniting part works as a lens to concentrate the diffracted beam in to a series of end product ports on the opposed side. Helpful mediation focuses beam of a uneven wavelength at merely one place on the opposite side, with the ports set up to garner beam at the expected wavelength span, such as typical optical channel slots for WDM. [ 6 ] The figure of channels and the figure of end product ports are divided ; when the channel spacing is multiplied by the figure of channels can be obtained free spectral scope of the device. The wave guides traveling among the two combination parts is larger than the figure of channels. [ 6 ] AWG is a planar-waveguide devise transporting out of high transmittal grates. Arrayed wave guides made in plastic, Si, silicon oxide or semiconducting material stuffs like as In phosphates. AWG as a planar wave guide device, it could be made monolithically and integrated with other constituents. [ 6 ]4.1 MULTIPLXER / DEMULTIPLEXERArrayed waveguide grates have obtained blessings for WDM with high channel calculates as their agreements permit low cost per channel than the methods footing on distinct optics. When in the research lab editions have reached really finally high channel calculates and the spacing, with channel spacing to 10 GHz and 100s of channels in a individual device. [ 6 ] Demultiplexing is the chief intent of the AWGs, with utilizing a individual input presenting a WDM signal and which is demultiplexed and the end product of the optical channels are divided among assorted end product wave guides. For multiplexing in AWGs, the constituent could be reversed with signals at stray wavelengths. And incoming stray port combined inside of the AWG. [ 6 ] Typical AWGs have base on balls sets. It is closely in Gaussian signifier. They are powerful faded beam from the nearby base on balls sets. Though, the perfect base on balls set for WDM has a level top conversely than the arched Gaussian extremum. The simplest channel to smoothing the extremum is convenient filtering by rectifying manner beam of visible radiation is carried to the input port, or by rectifying the lengths of the array weaponries of the AWG. [ 6 ] One option is to stick on an interleaver to split signals between brace of AWGs. Once is accepting the even channels and the other uneven channels. Another waveguide constituent or AWG is for excess filtering. [ 6 ] As the AWG demultiplexer Wavelength routing is the same rules. The of the panoplied wave guide grates diffraction angle depends geometry of the grating engineering every bit good as on the angle of the incidence. All the optical channels have to the same angle of incidence when they are come ining through the individual fibers. [ 6 ] On the other manus, those inputs signals have different incidence angles if the light enters to the input sociable through the two or more input ports, hence they are diffracted at the dissimilar angles as they appear from the panoplied wave guides grates in the end product of the sociable. When reroute and the rearrange to optical channels delivered by multiple inputs of fibers this consequence can be used to be easy. [ 6 ] Harmonizing to that the routing agreement is stiff, channels with the same wavelength wo n't interfere with the each other or to be routed in out of the same wave guide. [ 6 ]4.2 APPLICATIONS OF AWGArrayed wave guide grates ( AWG ) s are chiefly experimental used in optical fibre communicating systems or webs. In peculiar those based on the multi-channel transmittal with wavelength division multiplexing ( WDM ) . In single wavelength channels or channels must be used in combined or separated. It can be the portion of the more complex photonic integrated circuits ( e.g. WDM senders ) . Arrayed waveguide grating can be used for dividing or interleaving the lines in the spectrum of a ace continuum beginning, or in a pulse maker for extremist short pulsations.5. Operation OF AWGFigure 5.1 Array waveguide Gratings [ 10 ] Figure 5.2 Lens apparatus of an AWG [ 10 ] Waveguide constellation is formed on a substrate in the Arrayed wave guide grating. Include the undermentioned options in the wave guide constellation. In to the first slab can be arranged One or more optical input wave guides, and the end product side can be connected in to the first slab, one or more optical end product channel Arrayed wave guides, and that waveguides connected to the input side of the 2nd slab. From the catching visible radiation get downing the outside to the first slab and the waveguide propagate visible radiation at that place through. In the panoplied wave guide plenty many of wave guides in assorted lengths. And the 2nd slab wave guides are linked to end product border of the panoplied waveguide.Then the individual or more of the optical end product wave guides can organized. In the array waveguide grate of claim ( fibre optics ) where different in length from each other. And fibre optics is ( skiding ) concept in mutually-different stuffs. In the panoplied wave guide grate, fibres are separate from each other. Figure 5.3 Conventional representation position of the N X N AWG. [ 33 ] Figure 5.4 The Input / Output Free Propagation Region. [ 34 ] In usually AWG appliances such as serve the multiplexers, add-drop devices, demultiplexers and filters and the optical Wave Division Multiplexing ( WDM ) and the Dense Wave Division Multiplexing ( DWDM ) uses. Figure 5.3 shows a conventional illustration of the N x N AWG. The instrument includes of two curved in slab waveguide star couplings ( free infinite scope or free extension ranges, FSR ) , linked by a spell off array wave guide with the same length fluctuation among nearby Array wave guides. [ 4 ] The processing theory of the AWG multiplexers/demultiplexers can be explained in brief as below. In the input waveguide Light propagating is diffracted in coupled into the panoplied wave guide and the slab part by the 1st FSR. The panoplied wave guide has been planned like as the optical tract of the length fluctuation between nearby array wave guides equivalent an figure many of in-between wavelength of the demultiplexer. As a consequence, the field bringing at the input gap will be recreated at the end product opening. [ 4 ] So, at this in-between wavelength, the beam of light dressed ores in the center of the image surface ( presented that the input wave guide is in-between in the input surface ) . If the input wavelength is re tuned from this in-between wavelength, alterations of stage happen in the array subdivisions. Because of this steady tract of the length in fluctuation between nearby wave guides, this stage vary get higher linearly array wave-guides from the inner to outer, That may go on the moving ridge forepart to be slanting at the end product opening. [ 4 ] As a consequence, the cardinal point in the plane of image is moved left from the Centre. The pointing of the end product wave guides in the plane of image permits the suited farewell of the assorted among wavelengths. The input includes of a figure of channels, usually among 8 or 40 in industrial devices, transmitted on single frequences. Channel spacing is common in commercial devices. [ 2 ] Frequency spacing in has been attained harmonizing to laboratory state of affairss. The functioning wavelength is normally approximately 1.55 I?m which fading is least in fibre optics. Every wave guide in the AWG be probably to one manner to do certain expected extension throughout the machine. [ 2 ]5.1 BASIC DESIGN PARAMETERS OF AWGWhen knowing of the working theory of AWG take in, it depends on the assorted stuffs, like as polymeric stuffs or silicon oxide, and design conditions. like as diffraction, length difference of nearby panoplied wave guides, chief length of the slab wave guide, free spectral scope ( FSR ) , and maximal value of input and the end product wavelength channels, the maximal figure of the array wave guides. The basic design parametric quantities are summarized in analytical equations as follows: [ 28 ]5.1.1 LENGTH DIFFERNCE OF AJACENT ARRAY WAVEGUIDThe way length fluctuation among nearby arrayed wave guides a?† L is given by the below look [ 13 ] Where nc – is the effectual refractile index of AWG, a?† L – is the way length difference between next arrayed wave guides i? ¬0 – is the centre wavelength of the panoplied wave guide, m – is the diffraction order,5.1.2 Free SPECTRAL RANGE ( FSR )Free spectral scope ( FSR ) is a important belongings of the AWG, demultiplexer cyclicity is the similar name to the FSR. This cyclicity is because of the information that create interface at the outside FSR can go on for a sum of wavelengths. The free spectral span indicates the frequence spacing and the wavelength among the upper limit of the interface theoretical account due to the cyclic qualities of the AWG transportation map, and could be get as follows. [ 4 ]Where,FSR – free spectral scope nc – effectual refractile index of AWG m – order of diffraction ng – group refractile index i? ¬0 – Centre wavelength of the panoplied wave guide5.2 TECHNICAL FIELDIn the communicating field of optical fiber, there can be used an panoplied wave guide grating while specified. In the current innovation connects for panoplied wave guide grate is pull offing the undertaking of the wavelength demultiplexing and multiplexing of optical signals of many wavelengths. [ 14 ] In the panoplied waveguide grating can be arranged one or more optical fiber input wave guides.In the first slab wave guides are linked to the optical input wave guides which is in the end product sides. And panoplied wave guide is linked to the end product side wave guides of first slab. And the 2nd slab wave guide are linked to the end product side of the panoplied wave guides. And there can be Arranged one or more optical fiber end product wave guides. [ 14 ] The panoplied wave guide is provided by the propagating of the light end product from and the plurality of wave guides and the first slab waveguide arranged. Nearby channel wave guides are assorted in lengths by predefined lengths. And the panoplied wave guide provides to the each one of signal for a stage fluctuation is in the panoplied wave guide grates. Normally, a big figure of channel wave guides are included the panoplied wave guide. [ 14 ] On the array wave guide grate, when the wavelength division multiplexed of optical signal including signals can be holding wavelengths I »1, I »2, I »3†¦ †¦ to†¦ . I »n. One optical input wave guide can be entered those wavelengths. Then after that this signal forwards to the optical input wave guides and in to the first slab wave guides. Then the signal is diffracted and spread by the first slab wave guide and it is transmitted to the panoplied wave guide to propagate there through. [ 14 ] After arrayed wave guide go throughing through, the signals enter the 2nd slab of wave guide in articulation of and so the end product from the optical wave guides. And the channel of the wave guides in the panoplied wave guides are all different in lengths, the stage difference between appears in each of the signals are that have passed through out of the panoplied wave guides. In Oder to this stage differences, the moving ridge forms foreparts of the signals are tilt. And this tilt angles are determines of the focal points of the signals. [ 14 ] In this ground of the central points of the signals are holding different different wavelengths differ from each other and the consequently optical end product of the wave guides are formed at the respective in the focal points. Within this constellation, the signals are different the wavelengths are an extracted by the optical end product wave guides severally. Then the completing of the map as a wavelength division demultiplexer of an panoplied wave guide grate. [ 14 ] The panoplied wave guide grates are taken by advantage of rule and the reversibility of optical circuits. And the panoplied wave guide grate besides handles in the map of the wavelength division multiplexers. And every bit good as wavelength division demultiplexer. The reversing in the above described in the process, when the signals are holding differing wavelengths I »1, I »2, I »3†¦ to†¦ .I »n enter several optical end product of the wave guides. The signals are passes through the above mentioned of the extension way in contrary. And in the 2nd wave guide slab, signals are multiplexed. And the panoplied wave guide and the first slab wave guides and end product of the optical fiber input wave guides. In by and large, as an panoplied wave guide grates are chiefly made of the silicon oxide based with glass. [ 14 ]6. Lab ExperimentIn the research lab experiment Opti system package was used to analyzing public presentation of Array Waveguide Based Interleaver. In here I used to AWG N x N multiplexer. An AWG N x N multiplexer construction is shown in Figure 6.1 Figure 6.1 Soft ware construction of AWG. Figure 6.2 Soft ware belongingss of AWG Chiefly in AWG can be configure as, Size – with N inputs between 2 and 1000 Configuration – Mux and De-mux Frequency – Between 30 and 300000 THz. Bandwidth – Numeral value between 0 and 1e+100 GHz. Frequency Spacing – Numeral value between -10000 and 10000 GHz. In practically we use of following sets and the wavelength ranges,SetDescriptionWavelength RangeO set Original 1260 to 1360 nanometer Tocopherol set Extended 1360 to 1460 nanometer S set Short Wavelengths 1460 t0 1530 nanometer C set Conventional ( â€Å" Er window † ) 1530 to 1565 nanometer L set Long Wavelengths 1565 to 1625 nanometer U set Ultra long Wavelength 1625 to 1675 nanometer * ( 1530 nm t0 1650 nm Dense WDM ) Table 6.1 Wavelength scopes [ 8 ] To the AWG can be input in N frequences. Each channel will go out through a different end product, harmonizing to its wavelengths and frequence. AWG input with an suited design, the channels will be issue and separated through assorted end products. In this experiment used the C set for practical.6.1 AWG WORK AS MULTIPLEXERFigure 6.1.1 Setup of AWG usage as Multiplexer Figure 6.1.2. End product of the five channels This subdivision, is described the experimental consequences of the multiplexer utilizing an AWG. Figure 6.1.3 shows of the experimental apparatus in rudimentss. In the experiment, separated two channel optical signals ( With utilizing optical Trans metres ) multiplexed by utilizing AWG. And the observation can be taken by the optical spectrum analyser. Figure 6.1.3 simple construction of the Simulation of AWG usage as mux. Figure 6.1.4 one of the end products of the two channels with spacing. Figure 6.1.5 one of the end products of the two channels with addition spacing. Input frequencies- 1530nm & A ; 1565nm In AWG, Configure Mux, Frequency- 1550nm. Change the frequence spacing of the optical sender. Wavelength ( A µm ) Frequency spacing ( nanometer ) Figure 6.1.6 frequence spacing and wavelength diagram The diagram shows the fluctuation of frequence spacing and wavelength. That is additive diagram.6.2 AWG WORK AS DE-MULTIPLEXERFigure 6.2.1 Setup of AWG usage as De Multiplexer Figure 6.2.2 End product of the three channels In this subdivision, described the experimental consequences of the AWG utilizing de multiplexer. Figure 6.2.3. shows the simple experimental apparatus. In this experiment, separated two channels input the multiplexer. In the end product of multiplexer in put the AWG.After that observes the end product of signal diagrams of optical spectrum analyser. The bearer wavelength of the channels 1 and 2 are 1530 nanometer and 1540 nanometer severally. For the Demux strategy, we used opt system soft ware a commercially available in AWG. The centre frequence of the AWG was set to the 1560 nanometer. And they perform desired to the Demux operation. Figure 6.2.3 simple construction of the Simulation AWG usage as de mux. Figure 6.2.4 two optical end product of the AWG de mux The figure shows the Separation between the bearers and the two sidebands. There can be seen by a considerable sum of the unsuppressed optical bearers. In this experiment, foremost filtered the bearer signal and the lower sideband of the channels 1 and 2 with utilizing the AWG as shown in Figure6.2.3 because we used an AWG, each demultiplexed channel can non be at the same time detected. The channel choice was made by seting the input ports of the AWG. The bearer and the sideband of the unsought channel are suppressed by the desired bearer and the sidebands of the channels severally. Figure6.2.5 frequence spacing and wavelength diagram The diagram shows the fluctuation of frequence spacing and wavelength. That is additive diagram. In here more clearly and shows the shifted in end product signals of the in-between wavelength through to the outside ushers. Figure proves the hypertrophied version of the in-between channel. AWG is includes of a diffraction of the lens and the grate and the slender end product split with a spatially modeled of the mask on extremum of the grates. This needed provides an end product of the temporal wave form. But that is a precisely scaled version of the input spacial profile at the grate. [ 15 ] In cherished of a cyclically ailing input of the spacial form creates a on a regular basis separated explode of pulsations. An AWG could be thought about to the incorporated pulsation signifier where the array wave guide relates to the grates of the lens grouping in the majority equipment and the AWG end product waveguide groups to the greater portion optics end product. [ 15 ] The spacial wave guide theoretical account next to the end product of the AWG array portion is correspondent to the cyclically moderated spacial visible radiation on the greater portion grating the optics ; this clarifies the close lucifer among the highly high velocity pulsation explodes made here via lighting of an AWG and antecedently utilizing pulse makers. And besides the greater portion optics such as the AWG is able of bring forthing legion spatially divided and wavelength moved but else the same transcripts of the pulse explode. [ 15 ] As this attitude for brand usage of an AWG is earlier undiscovered, it is important to in brief express the optical power effectivity. Mentioning to the effectivity for a lone end product channel is approximately known by the base on balls set breadth separated. When the setup is planned so that end product channels are spaced by, the legion end product channels is approximately. So, the entire optical power effectivity is known by the efficiency for a individual channel period the figure of channels as the consequence. [ 15 ] In reappraisal of the experiment, we have to uncover in the first clip for our acquisition, the coevals of trains of the pulsations at terahertz repeat velocity is likely from an AWG. The cardinal conditions are that the device must be modified. And the multiple filters of base on balls sets of the signal tantrum within the input of the optical maser bandwidth. And the end product pulse repeat frequence is equal to the free spectral scope, or every bit the antonym of the hold of an addition per direct in of the array waveguide part. [ 15 ] The end product temporal profile is invariant across different end products of the same device, but the in-between wavelength moves from one end product to the following with the measure of displacement given by the channel spacing of the device. [ 15 ] In the pulsation spectrum breadth of an single pulsations in the end product train is verified by the input pulse breadth. These sole belongingss are license for coevals of the same wavelength shifted and really high velocity of the pulsation trains for intercrossed TDM ( Time Division Multiplexing ) and the WDM ( Wavelength Division Multiplexing ) communications and photonic signal processing. In the hereafter, we anticipate that similar experiments may be performed with a high-repetition-rate of the beginning ( 10s of GHz ) , which lead to really closely spaced or even uninterrupted THzs pulse should split. [ 15 ]6.3 AWG WORK AS INTERLEAVERFigure 6.3.1 simple construction of the simulation of AWG usage as Interleaver. In this simmulation input the sevaral frequncy by utilizing optical transmetters. And fall in the ideal mux and AWG. Out put of the ideal mux showen in figure 6.3.2. there is seven ( 7 ) frequncies with multiplexed out put. Figure 6.3.2 optical end product of Mux Figure 6.3.3 optical end product of optical spectrum Analyzer. In this figure can place chief end product of four ( 4 ) frequences are interleaving. Figure 6.3.3 optical end product of optical spectrum Analyzer-1. In this figure can place chief end product of other three ( 3 ) frequences are interleaving.7. TIME PLANE8. CONCLUTIONIn the changing universe, most things are altering into electronic based systems and the easy portion of the operations. As the consequence of this, optical fibres are usage to communicating. Now a twenty-four hours ‘s optical fibres are overlap with applied scientific discipline and technology designs and the applications of the equipments. In this undertaking is investigated theoretically the basic design parametric quantities of panoplied wave guide grate ( AWG ) with utilizing opti system package. In the experiments used the C-band ‘s spectral scope ( from 1530 nanometer to 1565 nanometer ) . And have been demonstrated theoretically that the lower limit of the diffraction order and the maximal figure of the input and the end product wavelength channels, and so the maximal figure of the panoplied wave guides. Besides have to look into the optimisation design and the parametric quantities of AWG for a C-band application. By utilizing opti system package comparing the fluctuation of frequence spacing and wavelength constellation with AWG. That configures with two types, multiplexer and the de multiplexers. Got readings with altering frequence spacing. Those are additive diagrams. The ground for that frequence spacing fluctuation is additive for both multiplexrs and de multiplexer constellations in AWG. The cognition was addition about the how to work with the soft ware and the constituents can be use in imitating procedure by utilizing opti system package.9. Reference[ 1 ] Yinchieh Lai. â€Å" Arrayed wave guide grating DWDM interleaver † , OFC 2001 Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Technical Digest Postconference Edition ( IEEE ) , 2001 [ 2 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nottingham.ac.uk/ggiemr/downloads/SL_chapt2.pdf [ 3 ] Xaveer J. M. Leijtens. â€Å" Arrayed Waveguide Gratings † , Springer Series in Optical Sciences, 2006 [ 4 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.apollophoton.com/apollo/APNT/APN-APSS-AWG.pdf [ 5 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.comsoc.org/ci/private/1998/dec/Sadot.html [ 6 ] Hecht, Jeff. â€Å" New household of constituents emerge from arrayed waveguide grates: interior decorator are utilizing AWGs to make a † , Laser Focus World, Dec 2003 Issue [ 7 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajeas/ajeas22317-323.pdf [ 8 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber [ 9 ] O. Moriwaki. â€Å" Interleaved Waveband MUX/DEMUX Developed on Single Arrayed-Waveguide Grating † , OFC/NFOEC 2008 – 2008 Conference on Optical Fiber Communication/National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference, 02/2008 [ 10 ] S. Cao. â€Å" Interleaver Technology: Comparisons and Applications Requirements † , Journal of Lightwave Technology, 2004 [ 11 ] Wang, Q.. â€Å" Optimal design of a flat-top interleaver based on cascaded M-Z interferometers by utilizing a familial algorithm † , Optics Communications, 20030901 [ 12 ] Qin, Z.-K.. â€Å" Analysis for fiction mistakes of panoplied wave guide grating multiplexers † , Optics and Laser Technology, 200803 [ 13 ] D.E. Leaird. â€Å" Generation of high-repetition-rate WDM pulsation trains from an arrayed-waveguide grate † , IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 3/2001 [ 14 ] A. Kaneko et Al, â€Å" Recent advancement on AWGs for DWDM applications, † IEICE trans. Vol.E83-C, no.6, 2000. [ 15 ] ITU-T specification study G.709 and G.975 [ 16 ] Journal of Light wave Technology, Vol.21, No.8, Aug 2003 [ 17 ] E. S. Koteles, â€Å" Integrated two-dimensional wave guide demultiplexers for high denseness WDM applications, † Fiber and Integrated Optics, vol.18, pp. 1999. [ 18 ] John M. Senior â€Å" Optical FiberCommunication † [ 19 ] IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 13, No. 3, March 2001 [ 20 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber [ 21 ] Y. Inoue, H. Takahashi, and et Al: â€Å" Elimination of polarisation sensitiveness in silicabased wavelength division multiplexer utilizing a polyimide half waveplate, † J. Lightwave Technology, vol.15, no.3, pp1947-1957, 1997. [ 22 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.freepatentsonline.com/7539368.html [ 23 ] C. Doer et al. , IEEE Photon. Tech. Lett.11, 581 ( 1999 ) . [ 24 ] ] K. Takada et al. , IEEE Photon. Tech. Lett.az13, 1182 ( 2001 ) . [ 25 ] C. Dragone- optical multiplexer and two-dimensional agreement of two star couplings, IEEE Phot. vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 812-815, 1991. [ 26 ] M. K. Smit and A. R. Vellekoop – Four channel integrated-optic wavelength multiplexer with weak polarisation dependance, Lightwave Technology. , vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 310-314, 1991. [ 27 ] hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/winter2002/04.html [ 28 ] Rajiv Ramaswami & A ; Kumar N. Sivarajan. , â€Å" Optical Networks † [ 29 ] M. K. Smit and C. van Dam, â€Å" PHASAR-Based WDM-Devices: Principles, Design and Applications † , IEEE J. of Sel. Subjects in Q.E. , vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 236-250, 1996. [ 30 ] IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol.17, No.12, Dec 2005 [ 31 ] Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia-VOL. 10, NO. 2, 2008. [ 32 ] K. Okamoto, Fundamentals of optical wave guides, New York: Academic, pp. 359, 2000. [ 33 ] P. MuE?noz, D. Pastor and J. Capmany, â€Å" Analysis and design of panoplied wave guide grates with MMI couplings † Optical Communications Group Universidad PolitA?ecnica de Vera signal-to-noise ratio, 4607 [ 34 ] S.Musa, Borreman, † Multimode arrayed waveguide greating demultiplexer ‘ , University of Twente, Light wawe Devices Group. [ 35 ] H. Takahashi, â€Å" Arrayed wave guide grating for wavelength division multiplexer with nanometer declaration, † Electron. Lett. , vol. 26, pp. 87-88, 1990. [ 36 ] www.oplink.com/shop/images/uploads/AWG50.JPG [ 37 ] C. Dragone, optical multiplexer utilizing a two-dimensional agreement of two star, IEEE Photon. ( 1991 )

To what extent was the March 1968 reevaluation of the Vietnam War, as Coursework

To what extent was the March 1968 reevaluation of the Vietnam War, as a function of Cold War ideology, accomplished to satisfy domestic concerns rather than international concerns - Coursework Example The fight angered the people back in the states as the promise of the war ending had been breached and the confidence of the administration had dwindled completely. The people wanted more than ever for the war to end and not to continue with retaliation which would mean addition of more troops. The President’s declaration of the war ending in March of 1968 was therefore made to calm the people down and fulfill their wishes even though the international concern would loom over the decision. The best international course of action and which was being recommended by the general was addition of more soldiers but this would divide the nation even further than it already was and hence the president ended the war. The end of the war satisfied the people but they still lacked trust in their president and he decided not to seek re-election having let down the

'He will come again to judge the living and the dead' Why is this Essay

'He will come again to judge the living and the dead' Why is this statement in the Niceness Creed, how is it relevant and how do - Essay Example These verses that are relatively confusing about the issue include Gen 37:35, Job 7:9 and Psalms 6:6; the verses present death as the movement of a person from the plane of the living to Sheol, and notes that life and God are not remembered at Sheol (Wright, 2007). This paper will discuss the role of the statement among the creeds, its relevance and its function in today’s Christian faith. Discussion These persistent questions are answered through the Nicene Creed, which became one of the strongholds of Christian faith and the foundation of many religious groups. The better answers to the questions emerged during the 2nd century, following an increase in the belief in the resurrection and the final judgement of the living as well as the dead (Wright, 2007). The basic belief that forms the fundamental principles of many Christian groups traces its roots to the Nicene Creed, which expressly states that the judgement of God will cover both the living as well as the dead. The cree d sets the basis of the belief that the people, who die believing in God, do not lose out on their journey of faith; the believers who die will be resurrected during the judgement day, so that they can receive their reward. Together with believers, the non-believers will also receive their judgement, but will instead be sent to hell fire, where they will receive their reward for their disobedience. The believers of the present-day get the fundamentals for the interpretation of the statement contained in the Nicene Creed from the areas covered by the creed during Jesus’ time. During the time of Jesus, the accounts of the New Testament talk of the divisions that existed in the beliefs of the people of that time, especially the Pharisees and the Sadducees. The divisions in the beliefs developed about the subject are contained in different verses, including Mathew. 22:23, Mark 12: 18 and Acts 23:8 (Williams, 2007). The accounts of the gospels also contain the position of Jesus ab out the issue, where his explanation resolves the questions and the differences in the opinions of the different groups. One of these accounts is the one that talks about the end of the world, where the epistle of Mathew chapter 25 guarantees the judgement of all people – whether living or dead. Through Mathew’s epistle, Jesus explains that during his return in the company of angels, all the people of the world will be lined-up before him, so that he can judge on the ones to be rewarded and those to be sent to eternal destruction (Ashley, 2010). From the discussion contained in the passage, the position of Jesus is explicit that after the death of individuals, God will judge all and distinguish the evil from the good. The stance of Jesus, during the time of the division between the Pharisees and the Sadducees about the future of the living and the dead gives all Christians a solid base for their faith. The basic belief helps Christians to understand the fact that death is not the end of communion between God and his people; death does not separate the sinful from their judgement to eternal death (Ashley, 2010). Additionally, the stance of Jesus offers modern-day Christians the promise they need to keep their faith and observe the good values required from believers; meeting the commands of God about their relationships with others and with God, as well as serving God. The importance of faith in God is emphasized by the ultimate outcome of

Firms, Markets and Business Management Case Study

Firms, Markets and Business Management - Case Study Example of Australia decision on the dollar will have a vast impact on the financial market and the overall trading in the country, including demand and supply of imports and exports. The appreciation in Australian Dollar will impact the consumer rates of trading accordingly creating a higher spending ability of the people; hence, higher demand for products. The expected decision thus, to appreciate the Australian dollar will in result give consumers spending power, creating demand for products including from the whiskey firm. The whiskey firm will have to provide ore supplies hence earning more revenue and profits. The appreciation of the Australian dollar will target the inflation rate, as an expression to achieve over a period of years. Thus, in implementing the decision taken, the Australian Reserve Bank will seek to facilitate a flexibility for the policies that account for the short term impact on the consumer and producer as well as the overall economic growth (Australia , p 17, 2015). Thus, the trading course in the country with respect to the will Australian dollar changes will create a demand for supplies hence a steady curve for the trading engagements for the whiskey firm. In recent developments within the U.S., the U.S. Dollar has gained remarkable ground in trade, sparking an upward growth of the dollar. The effect resulting is global investors stashing money into the economy giving the dollar more muscle for trading against the other currencies. Consequently, the U.S. Dollar as it gains grounds for stronger trading and higher rate, the impact is on the global investors that export their products into the country (Valentine, p 14, 2012). The established implications for the higher dollar include that, the company that generates revenue from within the country have better competitive advantage against the local companies trading in foreign markets. Translating the profits back to the Australian Dollar will notably benefit this Australian whisky firm

Management information system Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Management information system - Assignment Example Membership level is categorised in three levels: red membership, green membership and white membership. This open space has free internet access, a coffee shop, among other things that make one comfortable while working. The mission statement of the company is to spread the impact. The impact here refers to betterment of life that comes by provision of good working environment. By ensuring quality services to customers and good payment to workers, the company spreads the impact. BPO’s has become and emerging trend and many organisations are adopting this kind of business stracture. As a result, it is important to understand the external environment and how it affects the business. This section will use Porter’s Five Force Model to evaluate opportunities and threats to iTech. It will look into threat of entry, threat of substitute, bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers and the extent of rivalry between iTech and other competitors. This is a new venture that most organisations are competing for. Initial cost of starting a BPO is high, however it has good returns. This makes this venture worth undertaking and many businesses with attempt to enter the market and offer competition. However, iTech has taken roots. It has been operation for the last 15 years. In addition to that, it is well experienced in the field. Therefore, if other firms find their way into the market, they will still have to work for a couple of years to gain enough experience for their influence to be felt. iTech has succeeded in dominating the market share. It has captured almost all suppliers and customers. This means that for new firms to succeed, it will take time to earn trust and confidence from loyal customers of iTech. Finally, as it has been stated above, iTech offers both BPO and open space services. With this differentiation of services, it gives community with types of services which a new entrant may not be in the position of

The contribution of the construction industry to economic development Dissertation

The contribution of the construction industry to economic development in Libya - Dissertation Example Over the next ten years i.e. 1991-2001 both GDP of construction industry and national GDP were increased significantly and the contribution of construction industry to Libya’s GDP was also increased significantly. In 2001 this contribution reached at 7.03%. However, since 2001 it again started to lower and quite surprisingly it came to almost 3.95% in the year 2006. In the next three years construction industry has contributed 4.52%, 5.13% and 8.78% respectively. Question 2 These percentage contributions of construction industry to the national GDP tells the way Libya’s construction industry has grown with the growth of the country’s economy. During the period of 1986-1991 construction industry’s growth was quite volatile whereas the national economy has grown consistently. In other words construction industry failed to perform in a constant way with respect to Libya’s economy. Similar trend is also observed over the next ten years i.e. 1991-2001 an d main reason behind such findings is the fact that there is lack of consistency in the growth of construction industry although the national economy has grown on a regular basis. However, data shows that during 2004-2009 this industry has grown constantly (from 2159.2 Million Libyan Dollar to 7577.5 Million Libyan Dollar).

Threats to the Tropical Rainforest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Threats to the Tropical Rainforest - Essay Example The potential impact of these threats on biodiversity of tropical forest is difficult to assess, due to the fact that the threats could be interlinked and each precipitates either direct or indirect effects. Regardless of the uncertainties associated with threat evaluation and impact assessment, the fact that these forests are subject to radical ecological changes, hence degradation is indubitable. For these reasons, it is imperative for conservationists and the global populations, to monitor, comprehend, and prevent the negative impact of these threats at all costs. Background Information Most studies in Earth systems reveal the fact that Tropical rainforests represent one of the World’s oldest and uninterrupted ecosystems. For instance, fossil records indicate that South-east Asia’s humid forests have been in existence for between 70 and 100 million years, without much alteration to their original form. Tropical rainforests make up some of the world’s haven for species, since they could have more than 1000 different species within an area of one square kilometer (km2). This is a very large proportion of both floral and faunal species, in comparison to that found in temperate forests, which harbor a meager 100 species within a similar spatial area. Tropical rainforests cover an estimated 2% area of Earth’s surface, which amounts to approximately 2000 million hectares (Ha). These forests get their name â€Å"Tropical† from their location within the tropics, that is, the Tropic of Capricorn about 23 degrees south and the Tropic of Cancer about 23 degrees north of the Equator (Primack and Corlett 15). Given the strategic location of Tropical rainforests within the tropics, they span across most of the world’s continents, including Africa, Asia, Northern Australia, and South America. These forests are also found in many of the tropical islands within these areas (Wright 554-555). The Amazon Rainforest is the largest of the Tropical rainforests in the world. Found in South America, the Amazon forest covers eight nations including Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela, Suriname and Ecuador. This huge forest covers a 2 million square miles area. Studies have shown that Tropical rainforests play a significant role in regulating local, as well as, global climatic conditions, in addition to regulating the crucial carbon cycle. The forests regulate the carbon cycle by absorbing and storing large amounts of carbon, while releasing much needed oxygen to the environment. This happens when the vast number of plants takes up carbon during photosynthesis, thus incorporating it into stored biomass. Even though there is no agreement as to whether preserved rainforests constitute the principal sink or source of carbon, negative influences of excessive deforestation are clearly known. Additionally, the role of deforestation in negating the carbon cycle is indubitable (Fearnside 681). Over the last severa l years, discussions regarding the links between forests’

Ethical Argument Choose a topic and argue the ethical side opposite of Essay

Ethical Argument Choose a topic and argue the ethical side opposite of the accepted norm - Essay Example Such could be the results of miscues especially of decisions, which are shadowed by the mists of pride and vested interests and the neglect of some ethical and moral guidelines. War had been a way of life for early civilizations. It was primarily the direct result of segmented societies where communities are tied by tribal concerns of control. The need for survival requires dominance within an area. To have a wider space means an assurance for more resources more security for living. The evolution of societies from early nomads until the present is marred by a lot of small and big wars. We have two major world wars and other big war yet to come, which doomsday seers predicted to cause an end to humanity. Therefore, whether we like it or not, war is an accepted norm. But trends in war have changed from the way it was fought in prehistoric and olden times. The rise of deep concern to human lives created awareness among the government leaders and ordinary persons alike the importance of preservation of life. War has become a form of arrogance and aggression. Wars fought today in the same cause, as thousand years ago is condemnable act. Today, war becomes a means of defense to suppress the interest of those who want to dominate a certain territory without respect for human rights. When the US led a campaign in Kuwait, it was meant to liberate a nation. When US challenge the North Koreans or other nations going into nuclear program, it was intended to warn them of the possible effects in future ambitions of arms development. Since the idea about war has shifted from barbaric acts of territorial grabbing to more of defensive acts the norm shifted to international recognition of human rights. Nations, great or small, share equal right and peoples of d ifferent races, colors, and territory show respect with one another. Many nations joined international organizations to recognize everyone's rights. The 21st century is the turning point of history and witness to the shift from the savage war of the past to humanistic concern of the present and the future. But the declaration of the war on terror after the 9/11 events caused a global war against enemies we don't know. The campaign has caused more casualties of innocent lives, arrests of innocent persons, and branding of several organizations who air grievances against their nations as terrorists. The war was indeed claimed to have been launched to secure the world against terrorists, but it has gone to a point that human rights were already compromised. But terrorism is a big issue and requires some moral judgment to qualify or consider certain acts as a form of terrorism. There are accepted definitions of terrorisms but interpretations differ. As Record stated: The definitional mire that surrounds terrorism stems in large measure from differing perspectives on the moral relationship between objectives sought and means employed. It is easy for the politically satisfied and militarily powerful to pronounce all terrorism evil regardless of circumstance, but, like it or not, those at the other end of the spectrum are bound to see things differently (8). As a result the War on Terror created confusion among the young Americans, who were taught about the morals of war and peace. The moralist consider the "attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon not acts of war but as a species of natural disaster, requiring unstinting generosity towards the

Diet and coronary heart disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Diet and coronary heart disease - Essay Example High calorie intake and related to it obesity is the major risk factor – obese people have hisgher risk of coronary heart disease. Consequently, the quote of total fat (and especially saturated and trans-fatty acids) should be restricted as well as the consumption of refined sugars and other sources of carbohydrates. The increased amount of food fiber in the diet is good alternative to unhealthy eating ( ). The lowest risk of coronarey heart disease is determined for vegetarians. The have risk of cardiovascular death (e.g. related to heart disease) which is lower in 1.33 folds than amongst non-vegetarians. A good choice for preventive purposes is Mediterranean diet which is characterising with high intake of fruits and evegetables, olive oil, sea food and a moderate amount of red dry wine. Seafood and the source of essential ï  ·-3 fatty acids and trace elements is useful for control of the level of cholesterol. There were proposed special preventive diets decreasing the risk of coronary disease. Thus Pritikin diet is enriched with food -fiber, unprocessed carbohydrates and contains low amount of fat ( ). Ornish diet restricts the consumption of animal fat (e.g. fatty fish or meat). Only non-fat dairy products and egg whites are allowed in the dietic system. Also Ornish diet restricts simple sugars and give the preferences for complex carbohydrates food. Traditional British diet is healthy enough because of high intake of complex carbohydrates nevetheless the restriction of animal food consumption and replacing these products with vegetables and fruits are expedient. The usage of alcohol beverages should be restriected in the persons with high risk of coronary disease (e.g. with high level of blood choleterol). Only small amount of red wine is permitted. Some food products contains essential nutrients and biologically active substances which are necessary for the prevention of coronary heart disease. Thus pine

Ethical Issues in Research Essay Example for Free

Ethical Issues in Research Essay Ethical issues are essential factors that must be given due and proper consideration in research. This becomes even more applicable when researchers deal with studies that involve human beings and animals. Numerous experiments are being made to achieve progress in various fields of discipline, including psychology. In doing so, human beings and animals must be protected, especially since using them in these experiments involves their well-being. For this reason, ethical standards are established. Ethical standards serve as the guidelines that govern the proper and improper participation and utilization of these life forms in research (University of Alberta, 2008). These standards ensure that studies which involve human beings and animals are subjected to limitations so that they would not be taken advantage of. According to the British Psychological Society (BPS) (2008), ethical guidelines give importance to respecting an individual as the researchers should not express any sign of prejudice toward the participants due to differences in racial descent, sexuality, language, and such. The privacy of the participants should also be respected. Thus, researchers must only acquire the personal information necessary for the study, and this information must be kept confidential. The researchers should also obtain the consent of the individuals who will participate in the study. During the study itself, participants should also be protected from any kind of harm, may it be psychological (e. g. , stress and anxiety) or physical. Moreover, the researchers also have to respect the participant’s right to leave an experiment any time that he or she wishes to. In another perspective, ethics tend to limit the advancement of psychological science. Since there are many guidelines and rules that have to be followed, researchers do not have full control over their participants. This sometimes hinders and impedes the experimentation process. Furthermore, obtaining the necessary license for this kind of research could be time-consuming, which can be used for the study itself (BPS, 2008). Scientists should accept and follow the limitations brought about by ethical guidelines because these guidelines only give due importance to the life of the participants. The main justification for these research studies is that the findings obtained from these would contribute to the knowledge and information on various fields of discipline and help improve the lives of individuals. This gives such studies an objective that is morally good (National Academy of Sciences, 2006). Hence, scientists should value the lives of the people they claim to help. Lastly, the one responsible in identifying the parameters of the participants’ protection are competent organizations that are familiar with the field of study being researched. In the case of the United States, the American Psychological Association (APA) (2008) is an organization that represents the psychologists in the U. S. APA (2008) implements an ethics code that every member of the organization must adhere to. References American Psychological Association. (2008). APA Ethics Office. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www. apa. org/ethics/.British Psychological Society. (2008). Ethics. Scienceaid. co. uk. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://scienceaid. co. uk/psychology/approaches/ethics. html. National Academy of Sciences. (2006). Scientific and ethical justification for using animals in research. Online Ethics Center for Engineering. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www. onlineethics. org/cms/16216. aspx. University of Alberta. (2008). Human Ethics, Biohazards, and Animal Welfare. Retrieved September 15, 2008, from http://www. rso. ualberta. ca/certification. cfm.

Review of downsizing and its impact on employees

Review of downsizing and its impact on employees This chapter provides a review of downsizing and its impacts on employees. The main objective of this chapter is to provide readers with a picture of the theories applied in such studies. Furthermore, empirical studies specifically associated with the downsizing context and theories applied in this study will be examined too. Finally, the aim of this literature review is to find the research gaps in previous studies and how this study will close these gaps. There are eight main sections depicted in this chapter. First, a general review pertaining to downsizing will be discussed. This section mainly deals with the issues of organizational downsizing strategies, the expected and actual economic impacts of downsizing and the empirical studies which have explored the impacts of organizational downsizing on surviving employees (managers and non-managers). The second section deals with one of the main theories applied in this research which is the stress and coping model by Lazarus and Folkman (1984). Third, six models of turnover and retention will be explored in this chapter. Two models of employee turnover and retention which are Lee and Mitchells (1994) the unfolding model of turnover and Mitchell et al.s (2001) job embeddedness model are two of the main theories applied in this research. Subsequently, empirical studies which employed these two models will be discussed. Then, few empirical studies associated with turnover intention and voluntary turnover specifically in downsizing context will be discussed. The seventh section of this chapter deals with two work-related stressors, namely job insecurity and role overload experienced by survivors following an organizational downsizing and their influences on turnover intention. Finally, the conclusion of this chapter deals with the research gaps identified from the literature review and how this research will close these gaps. 2.1 DOWNSIZINg A large amount of the research on organizational downsizing that has emerged over the past 25 years has entered on two main research questions as identified by Datta et al. (2010). They were (1) What precipitates employee downsizing? and (2) What are the effects of downsizing from the standpoint of individual attitudes/behavior and organizational performance? (Datta et al., 2010). The main focus of this section is the effects of downsizing on individual employees attitudes and behaviors. First of all, the downsizing strategies employed by organizations will be examined. The second section will briefly summarize the anticipated and actual economic impacts on downsized organizations. Finally, empirical studies pertaining to the impacts of organizational downsizing on surviving employees (managers and non-managers) will be discussed. 2.1.1 Downsizing Strategies Three forms of downsizing implementation strategies have been identified: workforce reduction, organization redesign, and systemic strategy (Gandolfi, 2008). The workforce reduction strategy focused on headcount reduction and employed tactics such as layoffs, retrenchments, early retirements, natural attrition, hiring freeze, buy-out packages, transfers, and out-placement. Second, work redesign strategy concentrated on reducing work itself instead of cutting the number of employees. It included tactics such as phasing out functions, hierarchical levels, departments or divisions, redesigning tasks and consolidating units. Third, the systemic strategy emphasized on the organizational culture and the attitudes and values of its employees. Previous studies have shown that most organizations practiced workforce reduction strategies to downsized company (Gandolfi, 2005), while layoffs were the most common way to downsize (Mishra Mishra, 1994). 2.1.2 The Expected and Actual Economic Consequences of Downsizing Organizations adopted downsizing for a number of reasons, the most common reason was to improve efficiency, effectiveness and the productivity in the organizations (Cascio, 1993; Kets de Vries Balazs, 1997; Mone, 1994; Savery Luks, 2000). While efficiency concerned an organizations ability to do things better, effectiveness entailed an organizations ability to do the right things in order to survive (Budros, 1999). Beneficial consequences in terms of cost savings considerations were among the expected outcomes of organizations downsized (Cascio, Young, Morris, 1997). De Meuse, Venderheiden and Bergmann (1994) mentioned that organizations reduced employment costs by cutting employees who were not performing well. According to Cascio (1993) and Kets de Vries and Balazs (1997), expected economic benefits included lower expense ratios, increased return of investment, higher profits and stock prices. Another economic benefit resulted from organizations was being able to increase value for their shareholders (Cascio, 1993; Cascio et al., 1997; De Meuse et al., 1994). Additionally, other benefits as a result from downsizing included lower overhead, smoother communication, increased entrepreneurship, and heightened productivity (Cascio, 1993; Kets de Vries Balazs, 1997). In addition, Mone (1994) suggested that benefits may also be realized in the forms of lower average salaries for the less senior surviving work force, fewer management layer and flatter organizational structures. Finally, downsizing helped organizations to remain competitive in the increasingly global marketplace (Ugboro, 2006). As per Cascio et al. (1997) downsized organizations should be able to lower their labor cost, and as a result in increased earnings or to control product prices to improve competitiveness. As such, organizations have been urged to become lean and mean through downsizing activities, by took into account costs and other competitive consideration on national and international level (Appelbaum, Simpson, Shapiro, 1987, p. 68). Irrespective of the intended benefits as mentioned above, the general consequences of the economic impact of downsizing were negative (Budros, 1999; De Meuse et al., 1994; Gandolfi, 2008). Although a few organizations have reported increased financial performance; however, majority of the downsized organizations have reported decreased levels of efficiency, effectiveness, productivity and profitability (Gandolfi, 2008). Even though downsizing is used as a cost reduction strategy by organizations, there was evidence that downsizing does not decreased costs as desired. On the contrary, costs may actually increase in some cases (McKinley, Sanchez, Schick, 1995). A number of hard-to-quantify costs were listed, including costs of quality as a result of increased rework, scrap, inspection and overtime costs for surviving employees whose workload increased and forgone new business opportunities as they did not have the resources to take on the new work (Mabert Schemenner, 1997). Mirvis (1 997) cited that over one third of the downsizing organizations that were surveyed reported that unexpected increased in number of temporary workers and consultants and the need for surviving employees to work overtime and to be retrained. Moreover, Bruton, Keels, and Shook (1996) reported that the stock price for downsized organizations decreased after two years of downsizing. In a recent study by Yu and Park (2006) which analyzed financial data of 258 listed Korean firms between 1997 and 2002, downsizing organizations suffered more financial difficulties than organizations that did not downsized. Downsizing resulted in an increase in the organizations profits and efficiency but no effects on employee productivity. Furthermore, there was some evidence to suggest that those organizations which had downsized reported lower measures of profitability than those did not (Carswell, 2005; Mentzer, 1996). Empirical studies also found that downsizing had a negative impact on corporate reputation (Love Kraatz, 2009; Zyglidopoulos, 2005). Gandolfi (2008) contend the following statements in review of available studies: Most firms adopted downsizing strategies did not reap economic and organizational benefits; Non-downsized firms financially outperformed downsized forms in the short-, medium- and long-run (Macky, 2004; Morris, Cascio, Young., 1999); While some firms had shown positive financial outcomes, there was no empirical evidence to suggest a correlation between downsizing and improved financial performance (Macky, 2004; Morris et al., 1999); Some firms have reported positive financial indicators in the short term, yet the long-term financial consequences of downsizing have been shown to be consistently negative. 2.1.3 Impacts of Downsizing on Surviving Employees This section will examine the impacts of organizational downsizing on two categories of employees, namely managers and non-managers. 2.1.3.1 Impacts on Surviving managers A number of studies were conducted to identify the impacts of downsizing on managers (e.g. Dopson, Risk, Stewart, 1992; Thomas Dunkerley, 1999; Thomas Linstead, 2002). The literature below will review empirical studies concerning impacts on surviving managers as consequences of organizational downsizing. Foremost, three main aspects were identified which are longer working hour and intensified work regimes, wider roles and responsibilities, and managerial career. Subsequently, surviving managers attitudes toward organizational downsizing will be explored too. Longer Working Hours and Intensified Work Regimes Thomas and Dunkerley (1999) conducted a study to examine the UK middle managers experiences of downsizing and to discover how these experiences influenced their roles and nature of middle management. Data collection was divided into two phases. Phase one comprised of a 50 case-study organizations, involving interviews with key managers (senior line and HR) and middle managers. While phase two involved in-depth analysis of up to ten interviews with middle managers in ten organizations drawn from the original cohort. A wide range of organizations were involved in the study, included oil, brewing, insurance, local authorities, health service, military, civil service agencies, manufacturing, engineering, music industry, retail and distribution from both private and public sectors. Managers interviewed reported longer working hours and intensified work regimes. They experienced a significant increased in the number of hours worked, including at work and at home during evenings and on the weekends. However, majority of the managers pointed that this long hour worked was through their choice and necessity to get the job done rather than through presenteeism or fear of job loss (Thomas Dunkerly, 1999, p. 162). Similar findings were presented by Thomas and Linstead (2002) based on a wider study in the UK of approximately 150 middle managers in 50 organizations that had undergone major organizational restructuring. A wide range of private and public sector organizations included oil, brewing, insurance, manufacturing, local authorities, health, armed forces, engineering, logistics, mineral extraction and privatized utilities were involved in the study. A qualitative, inductive and multi-methods approach had been adopted and specifically involved case studies that focused on an individual middle managers subjective experiences. Likewise, problems of worked longer hours and unpaid overtime were reported by McCann et al. (2004) in a comparison study between Japanese and Anglo-American management systems based on interviews with senior or HR managers and middle managers in 30 large organizations. Both private and public sectors organizations comprised the sample and included steel manufacturing, heavy mechanical engineering, brewing, automotive, electronics, financial services, retail, healthcare, local government and central government. Zemke (1990) also reported that middle managers worked more hours than before downsizing took place. A variety of reasons were being identified which contributed to the intensification of work faced by middle managers. They included wider roles and responsibilities, flatter structures, reduced in number of middle managers, presenteeism through fear and job insecurity, pressure from peer to perform, performance cultures with increased individual accountability and the necessity to keep pace with constant change. (McCann et al., 2004; Thomas Dunkerley, 1999; Thomas Linstead, 2002). Wider Roles and Responsibilities Dopson et al. (1992) conducted a small-scale study to look into the changes affected middle managers and their reactions to these changes in both public and private sectors. Two phrases of data collection were conducted. In the first phase, eight general case studies were conducted by interviewing a senior manager (training manager) and on average six middle managers in each case. The second phase of the research comprised of interviews with twenty middle managers in each of four case studies (a computer company, a car manufacturing company, a new public agency, and an autospares company), two to three senior managers, the personnel and training manager(s), and in the public-sector case the trade union representatives. The interviews results indicated that middle management jobs became more general, with greater responsibilities and a wider range of tasks. These findings were supported by the studies of McCann et al. (2004), Thomas and Dunkerley (1999), and Thomas and Linstead (2002) . The removal of layers of middle management had resulted in an increasing span of control was a common feature of most middle management jobs in studies conducted (e.g., Dopson et al., 1992; Thomas Dunkerley, 1999; Zemke, 1990). Generally, middle managers were responsible for a wider mix and a greater number of subordinates than before (Dopson et al., 1992). On top of that, middle managers experienced significant increased of workload (Dopson et al., 1992; McCann et al., 2004; Thomas Dunkerley, 1999; Thomas Linstead, 2002). Middle managers had a greater responsibility for a wider range of duties for which they were now clearly more accountable (Dopson et al., 1992). Their roles ranged from technical and professional trends to more generic management, with tasks such managing, financing, budgeting and forecasting (Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). They needed to be more flexible (McCann et al., 2004), and obtained more generalist skills such as financial knowledge, ability to manage staff o f different backgrounds and a greater marketing and strategic orientation (Dopson et al., 1992). While McCann et al. (2004) found that middle managers were doing less managing of staff and more short-term, task focused co-operative group work. They were more likely to be managing subordinates in groups and tasks in a flattened hierarchy. Their job titles often bore little resemblance to their actual work tasks. Besides that, middle managers faced pressure from below due to the increased spans of control, constraint of resources and increased customer accountability. Furthermore, pressures were faced from above to perform a range of targets and performance indicators (Dopson et al., 1992; McCann et al., 2004; Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). Newell and Dopson (1996) in their attempt to investigate the impact of restructuring on middle management job and careers discovered that middle managers had to meet more stringent budgetary and quality targets as a result from interviews with 20 middle managers in telecommunication industry. The shift from physical commodities to information implied a shift from hierarchies of specialization to flexible networks of creativity and information sharing (McCann et al., 2004). Middle managers had less opportunity to fall back that their judgments was hampered by a lack of information due to the advancement of information and communication technology (Dopson et al., 1992). A number of middle managers commented on their needs to work in a variety of relationships, with manager and staff in organizations overseas, as well as spending time on oversea visits (Dopson et al., 1992). As consequences discussed above, stress-related problems and illnesses, role overload, tensions with home-life and impoverished life-styles were reported as a result from the long hours worked and increased roles and responsibilities (Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). Managerial Careers after Organizational Downsizing In terms of managerial career, both negative and positive views will be depicted as below. Individual middle manager retained responsibility for his/her own career (Newell Dopson, 1996). The trend towards individual accountability and individual contracts was noticed. Career advancement opportunities were declined due to the wide gaps between levels in the hierarchy and wider spans of control (Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). There were concerns about future career paths as the management hierarchy has been reduced (Dopson et al., 1992). Likewise, career opportunities were thought to have significantly decreased and there were no clear paths for middle managers (Newell Dopson, 1996). Some potential career paths were identified, such as the notion of filling dead mens shoes or promotion by the back door, that was being promoted because your face fitted, or you were good mates with the senior manager (Newell Dopson, 1996, p. 15). Majority of the managers commented on a lack of information provided by the organization about their role and future in the organization and about their feelings of lack of control after changes took place (Newell Dopson, 1996; Thomas Linstead, 2002). Some managers felt more insecure feelings on further changes and complained that the refocusing of tasks made them to lose certain enjoyable aspects of job (Dopson et al., 1992). They faced problems adapting to changes, especially when the changes were unexpected and the employees were not fully consulted about those changes (Dopson et al., 1992). Some middle managers felt that they are stuck in a situation which was continually demanding in terms; however, without the support of proper training and development (Newell and Dopson, 1996, p. 18). Likewise, middle managers felt that they were losing the plot in their organization with increased feelings of insecurity and uncertainty (Thomas Linstead, 2002, p. 88). Middle managers had a great sense of vulnerability that middle managers are an easy target (Thomas Linstead, 2002, p. 85). In contradiction, some middle managers reported positive experiences from downsizing (Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). A number of the middle managers felt a reduction in the frustration of their job (Dopson et al., 1992). Some reasons were identified to address such claim. First, the shorter hierarchy in the organizations meant that the middle managers were closer to top management and the strategic and policy arena (Dopson et al., 1992). They claimed to have greater control over their working lives and resources that they need, greater power of decision making, problem-solving, more innovative and strategic input (Dopson et al., 1992; Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). Thus, middle managers had more entrepreneurial roles. Many middle managers commented on feelings of job fulfillment and enrichment. Some surviving middle managers perceived increased career opportunities as some beneficial retirement packages had freed up the senior end of middle management. As a consequence, the profile of middle m anagement was getting younger (Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). Furthermore, the reduction in promotion opportunities were may be offset in part by the introduction of more performance-related pay (Dopson et al., 1992). Ebadan and Winstanley (1997) conducted a study which focused on getting the managers views of changes occurred and their perceptions of how the new career paths could be and should be forged. As a result, 42 respondents identified worse career prospects. However, despite the overall perception of worsening career prospects, the managers generally felt that their career prospects were better in the reorganized organizations than elsewhere. Work Attitudes of Surviving Managers Levitt et al., (2008) carried out a study to investigate the effects of downsizing on the survivors of layoffs in a large insurance organization. In-depth interviews with four middle managers were conducted to determine surviving middle managers attitudes pertaining to downsizing. Middle managers reported negative feelings of apathy, fear, distrust and anger toward the organization. Middle managers reported no loyalty or commitment to organization anymore. They no longer felt obligated to perform above and beyond the call of duty and no longer do so. These characteristics were consistent with the term as survivor syndrome (Devine et al., 2003, p.110). Similarly, in an attempt to know more about how middle managers responded to the demands of downsizing, ONeill and Lenn (1995, p. 25) found that surviving middle managers were anger, anxiety, cynicism, resentment, resignation, desire for retribution and hope. Middle managers reported high level of stress after downsizing. The type of stress was no longer isolated to the workloads; though, the increasingly feelings of job insecurity. They also indicated they felt stress relative to the constant organizational changes (Levitt et al., 2008). The study conducted by Luthans and Sommer (1999) found that managers reported lower level of organizational commitment, lower job satisfaction and workgroup trust following an organizational downsizing. Middle managers had lower morale and long-term commitment to organization due to the lack of resources and rewards and the constant pressure to reduce costs (Thomas Dunkerley, 1999). Correspondingly, majority of the respondents in the study by Ebadan and Winstanley (1997) indicated that they would have lower morale and motivation due to a possible decreased in promotion opportunities. The lower levels of commitment and trust of middle managers were resulted from the aspect of freedom to make decision. Fr eedom for middle managers to make strategic decisions had not always increased along with the growing of variety and creativity of middle management tasks (McCann et al., 2004). On the other hand, in the study by Thomas and Dunkerley (1999), middle managers reported higher job satisfaction level from increased empowerment over their work roles. Ugboro (2006) carried out a study to determine the relationship between job redesign, employee empowerment and intent to quit measured by affective organizational commitment among survivors of organizational restructuring and downsizing. The respondents of this study comprised of both middle managers and employees in supervisory positions. A total of 438 useable questionnaires have been used for data analysis purpose. The results showed significant positive relationships between job redesign, empowerment and affective commitment. The study showed that both job redesign and employee empowerment that enhanced survivors sense of impact and job meaningfulness could facilitate survivors affective commitment and reduced their turnover intention. In spite of the middle managers attitudes as mentioned above, Allen et al., (2001) revealed that the middle mangers attitudes changed over time after downsizing. The data was collected through surveyed 106 managers experienced a downsizing regarding organizational commitment, turnover intentions, job involvement, role clarity, role overload, satisfaction with top management and satisfaction with job security. The results generally indicated that downsizing had a significant impact on work attitudes, the impact varied over time and that the initial impact was generally negative. The findings indicated that the most negative impact on attitudes occurred during the immediate post-downsizing period (Allen et al., 2001). A later study by Levitt et al. (2008) opposed to the previous findings by Allen et al. (2001). Middle managers reported transitional changes in their feelings over time; however, these changes or transitions were predominantly from positive to negative. They reported posi tive feelings initially that changed to negative feelings and these negative feelings continued to grow overtime (Levitt et al., 2008). 2.1.3.2 Impacts on Surviving Non-managers In 1994, Mone conducted a study to examine how individual-level factors (self-efficacy, self-esteem, personal goals, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment) affected workers decision concerning turnover intention to leave the downsizing organization. A total of 145 employees at a U.S. manufacturing firm that experienced downsizing in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s were the respondents of the study. The findings suggested that self-efficacy was positively related to turnover intention. Furthermore, task self-esteem, but not role and global self-esteem had a negative impact on turnover intention. A 3-year longitudinal panel study was conducted by Armstrong-Stassen (2002) to compare the impacts on employees who had been declared redundant (N=49) in the initial downsizing stage, but who remained in the organization, and employees who had not been designated redundant (N=118). Data was collected in time T1 (early 1996), T2 (6 months later), T3 (1997), and T4 (1999). Employees designated redundant reported significantly higher level of job satisfaction at T4 compared with other three periods. While at T1, they reported lower job satisfaction than those declared nonredundant, but by T4 they reported higher level of job satisfaction than employees designated nonredundant. Additionally, both group of employees reported significant increase in job security between T1/T2 and T3 and also between T3 and T4. Devine et al. (2003) conducted a study to compare the outcomes experienced by both victims and survivors involved in a major downsizing program. The final sample consisted of 608 responses (435 continuing employees, and 173 displaced, re-employed employees). The findings suggested that employees who continued to work in the downsized environment reported higher stress level than those individuals who had been displaced. Additionally, the displaced employees reported they had more job control, or autonomy than continuing employees. Furthermore, the moderating effect of perceived job control on the relationship between the environmental stressors (downsizing) and perceived employee stress was found, indicating that high perceptions of control lowered feeling of stress, and vice versa. Finally, displaced employees reported significantly higher level of job satisfaction, overall physical health and quality of life perceptions, and lower level of absenteeism and licit drug use than contin uing employees. Summary In a nutshell from the review of downsizing research, it revealed that most of the studies pertaining to surviving managers especially middle managers have been in the form of qualitative method in which they explore the work-related stressors experienced by surviving managers and their attitudes. Furthermore, the direct relationship between work-related stressors (role overload and job insecurity) and turnover intention has been underresearched in the context of downsizing.